Causes and effects of gender based violence

Causes and effects of gender based violence Gender-based violence both reflects and reinforces inequities between men and women and compromises the health, self-respect, safety and sovereignty of its victims. It encompasses an extensive assortment of human rights violations, including sexual exploitation of children, rape, home brutality, sexual battering and harassment, trafficking of women and girls and numerous detrimental customary practices. Any one of these abuses can leave profound mental scars, damage the wellbeing of women and girls in common, including their reproductive and sexual health, and in some instances, results in death. Violence against women has been called the most insidious yet slightest renowned human rights oppression in the globe, and is a demonstration of historically uneven supremacy dealings between men and women, which have led to dominance over and inequity against women by men and to the hindrance of the complete progression of women, that cruelty against women is one of the critical social mech anisms by which women are compelled into a subsidiary position compared with men. Around the world, as many as one in every three women has been beaten, coerced into sex, or maltreated in some other approach most frequently by someone she knows, including by her spouse or another male relatives; one woman in four has been ill-treated during pregnancy. Violence against women mutually violates and impairs or nullifies the gratification by women of their human rights and elementary freedoms. In all societies, to a superior or minor extent, women and girls are subjected to corporal, sexual and mental violence that cuts across ranks of earnings, class and customs. This is a subject which endangers womens lives, bodies, mental uprightness and autonomy. Violence may have reflective effects, both direct and indirect, on a womans reproductive health, including: unnecessary pregnancies and limited admittance to family planning information and contraceptives, treacherous abortion or injuries unremitting throughout a lawful abortion subsequent to an unwanted pregnancy, compl ications from recurrent, high-risk pregnancies and lack of follow-up care, sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, continual gynecological problems as well as mental tribulations. Gender-based violence also serves by purpose or outcome to perpetuate male authority and control. It is sustained by a custom of silence and denunciation of the significance of the health penalty of violence. In addition to the impairment they exact on the individual stage, these outcomes also exact a communal duty and position an intense and needless yoke on health services. According to Murphy and Ringheim, four factors have been constantly linked with violent behavior: norms of male privilege and possession of women; male supervision of possessions in the family; male execution of decision-making in the family; and concepts of masculinity attached to supremacy and nobility (2001). Moreover, UNFPA recognizes that violence against women is inextricably linked to gender-based inequalities. When women and girls are anticipated to be generally submissive, their conduct in relation to their health, together with reproductive health, is unenthusiastically affected at all stages of the life cycle. When investigating the extenuating conditions lack of resources, education, healthcare and the sex trade, we find great and competent relations, and understand that these factors enable the perseverance of this phenomenon. The pervasiveness of home violence in a given society, thus, is the outcome of implicit reception by that society. The way men analyze themselves as men, and the way they think of women, will verify whether they use aggression or intimidation against women. Studies of very young boys and girls show that even though boys may have an inferior acceptance for annoyance, and an inclination towards rough-and-tumble play, these tendencies are dwarfed by the magnitude of male socialization and peer demands into masculinity roles. UNFPA recognizes that ending gender-based violence will mean changing cultural concepts about masculinity, and that procedure should dynamically appoint men, whether they are strategy makers, parents, spouses or little boys. Cross-cultural studies of wife abuse have found that nearly a fifth of peasant and small-scale societies are essentially free of family violence. The existence of such cultures proves that male violence against women is not the inevitable result of male biology or sexuality, but more a matter of how society views masculinity. Most domestic violence involves male anger directed against their women partners. This gender difference appears to be rooted in the way boys and men are socialized biological factors do not seem to account for the dramatic differences in behavior in this regard between men and women. Pregnant women are particularly vulnerable to gender-based violence. Some husbands become more violent during the wifes pregnancy, even kicking or hitting their wives in the belly. These women run twice the risk of miscarriage and four times the risk of having a low birth-weight baby. Looking at the pprevalence of and reasons for domestic violence among women from low socioeconomic communities of Karachi, cross-sectional study were conducted to estimate the prevalence of domestic violence and identify the reasons for it among 400 married women aged 15-45 years in low socioeconomic areas in urban Karachi. Data were collected with a pretested questionnaire. The prevalence of verbal abuse was 97.5% by the husband and 97.0% by the in-laws; the prevalence of physical abuse was 80.0% and 57.5% by the husband and in-laws respectively. Financial issues were the commonest reason for domestic violence followed by infertility and not having a son. The prevalence of domestic violence in this sample of women is high. There is a need to address this problem with efforts from health workers, policy-makers, nongovernmental organizations and others (Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 2007). The majority of sexual assault victims are young. Women in positions of abject dependence on male authorities are also particularly subject to unwanted sexual coercion. Rape in time of war is still common. It has been extensively documented in recent civil conflicts, and has been used systematically as an instrument of torture or ethnic domination. Now, with precedents set at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, in Tanzania, and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, at The Hague, for mass rape, other acts such as sexual assault, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced sterilization, forced abortion, and forced pregnancy may qualify as crimes of torture, crimes against humanity, and even some as crimes of genocide. This vicious cycle of development, identity and gender-based violence in fact explains the empirical evidence of the association between gender based violence and poverty, the individual risk factors of alcohol and substance abuse, ma le unemployment, male educational status and childhood experience of violence. Poverty, lack of education and lack of healthcare increases both vulnerability and the likelihood of exposure to gender based violence. There has also been the prevalence of the sex trade among women as a means of earning income which ultimately has unbearable the consequences on its workers and on women in general. The objectification of women is also a pressing issue that cannot be ignored. Violence, and womens fear of it, limits womens choices in virtually all spheres of life. It has long-term, as well as short-term consequences on womens physical and emotional well-being. It detrimentally affects womens ability to gain an education, earn a livelihood, develop human relationships and participate in public activities, including development programmes. There are different types of problems all over the world that women face, from the wealthiest countries to the poorest. In many countries, women are not entitled to own property or inherit land. Social exclusion, honor killings, female genital mutilation, trafficking, restricted mobility and early marriage among others, deny the right to health to women and girls and increase illness and death throughout the life-course. It will remain difficult for us to see sustainable progress unless we fix failures in health systems and society so that girls and women enjoy equal access to health information and services, education, em ployment and political positions. Reports by UNICEF, State of the Worlds Children, state that reasons for such disparity include the fact that women are generally underpaid and because they often perform low-status jobs, compared to men. UNICEF notes that the data isnt always perfect, and that generalizations such as the above can hide wider fluctuations. In Brazil, for example, women under the age of 25 earn a higher average hourly wage than their male counterparts. (p.39)Women not only earn less than men but also tend to own fewer assets. Smaller salaries and less control over household income constrain their ability to accumulate capital. Gender biases in property and inheritance laws and in other channels of acquiring assets also leave women and children at greater risk of poverty. Paid employment for women does not automatically lead to better outcomes for children. Factors such as the amount of time women spend working outside the household, the conditions under which they are employed and who controls the income they generate determine how the work undertaken by women in the labor market affects their own well-being and that of children (2007, p.36). Moreover, according to the United Nations, in no country in the world do men come anywhere close to women in the amount of time spent in housework. Furthermore, despite the efforts of feminist movements, women in the core [wealthiest, Western countries] still suffer disproportionately, leading to what sociologists refer to as the feminization of poverty, where two out of every three poor adults are women. The informal slogan of the Decade of Women became Women do two-thirds of the worlds work, receive 10 percent of the worlds income and own 1 percent of the means of production (Robbins 1999, p.354). Historically, economic recessions have placed a disproportionate burden on women. Women are more likely than men to be in vulnerable jobs, to be under-employed or without a job, to lack social protection, and to have limited access to and control over economic and financial resources. Policy responses to the financial crisis must take gender equality perspectives into account to ensure, for example, that women as well as men can benefit from employment creation and investments in social infrastructure. According to the Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2009, The economic and financial crisis puts a disproportionate burden on women, who are often concentrated in vulnerable employment, are more likely to be unemployed than men, tend to have lower unemployment and social security benefits, and have unequal access to and control over economic and financial resources. International statistics of the International Labor Organization showed that The economic crisis is expected to in crease the number of unemployed women by up to 22 million in 2009, the International Labor Office (ILO) says in its annual Global Employment Trends for Women report (GET), adding that the global jobs crisis is expected to worsen sharply with the deepening of the recession in 2009. In most societies, rape and domestic violence have on occasion provoked public outrage, but it has been left to womens organizations and movements to take more concerted action. The North does not have all the answers to this problem as gender-based violence is very much in existence in the developed world. Because gender-based violence is sustained by silence, womens voices must be heard. UNFPA puts every effort into enabling women to speak out against gender-based violence, and to get help when they are victims of it. The Fund is also committed to keeping gender-based violence in the spotlight as a major health and human rights concern. Another fascinating fact is that gender based violence is rampant in developed counties as compared to the developing countries. For instance, in a place like the U.S, despite the fact that advocacy groups like National Organization for Women (NOW) have worked for two decades to halt the epidemic of gender-based violence and sexual assault, the numb ers are still shocking. Murder, Intimate Partner Violence or Battering, sexual violence and assault are common phenomena. To the astonishment of most women across the globe, there is such a low conviction rate in gender-based violence cases, women are not believed by men and apparently even by fellow women. The judiciary imposes light sentences on such cases and even to some they are released on very modest bail or a mere warning. UNFPA advocates for legislative reform and enforcement of laws for the promotion and the protection of womens rights to reproductive health choices and informed consent, including promotion of womens awareness of laws , regulations and policies that affect their rights and responsibilities in family life. The Fund promotes zero tolerance of all forms of violence against women and works for the eradication of traditional practices that are harmful to womens reproductive and sexual health, such as rituals associated with puberty. Possible victims have been offered legal, medical and psychological support, and medical referrals when necessary. Attention has been paid to involving communities, and to creating support networks for gender-based violence victims that include both police and health-care providers, along with counseling services. UNFPA has also held workshops for health providers on recognizing the effects of gender-based violence on womens health, and on how to detect and prevent abuse and assist victims. These have stressed the need for confidentiality and monitoring. This body has also strengthening advocacy on gender-based violence in all country programmes, in conjunction with other United Nations partners and NGOs as well as advocating for women with parliamentarians and womens national networks. There have been strategies to counter violence against women and support the survivors. Case studies come from times of peace and times of armed conflict. Sections suggest strategies for transforming attitudes and beliefs in different societies that condone such violence, for supporting individual survivors, and to ensure that governments and NGOs fulfill their duty to protect woman. Womens rights around the world are an important indicator to understand global well-being. A major global womens rights treaty was ratified by the majority of the worlds nations a few decades ago. Yet, despite many successes in empowering women, numerous issues still exist in all areas of life, ranging from the cultural, political to the economic. For example, women often work more than men, yet are paid less; gender discrimination affects girls and women throughout their lifetime; and women and girls are often are the ones that suffer the most poverty. Many may think that womens rights are only an issue in countries where religion is law, such as many Muslim countries. Or even worse, some may think this is no longer an issue at all. But reading this report about the United Nations Womens Treaty and how an increasing number of countries are lodging reservations, will show otherwise. Gender equality furthers the cause of child survival and development for all of society, so the importance of womens rights and gender equality should not be underestimated. As part of its work to counter gender-based violence, UNFPA has supported training of medical professionals, to make them more sensitive towards women who may have experienced violence and to meet their health needs. Governments are not living up to their promises under the Womens Convention to protect women from discrimination and violence such as rape and female genital mutilation. There are many governments who have also not ratified the Convention, including the U.S. Many countries that have ratified it do so with many reservations. Gender equality and the well-being of children go hand in hand since it furthers the cause of child survival and development. It produces a double dividend: It benefits both women and children. Womens equal rights and influence in the key decisions that shape their lives and those of children must be enhanced in three distinct arenas: the household, the workplace and the political sphere. Gender equality is not only morally right, it is pivotal to human progress and sustainable development. Furthermore, this will be taking us closer to achieving the Millennium Development Goal Number 3-promoting gender equality and empowering women-will also contribute to achieving all the other goals, from reducing poverty and hunger to saving childrens lives, improving maternal health, ensuring universal education, combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, and ensuring environmental sustainability. Pressure must be maintained on national governments to prioritise the coordination of programmes and policies across sectors such as health, justice, social welfare and education to ensure that the composite needs of survivors of violence are addressed. Of equal importance is scaling up responses that work media campaigns, hotlines, and one-stop crisis centers and so on. Basically, gender based violence limits women as human beings, drains their energy and hope, and constricts the possibilities of creating a new vision of society. Since it includes threats of violence, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private, Violence against women is a violation of womens human rights, a cause and consequence of gender inequality, and a major cause of womens ill health. It is a detriment to their well-being, very often a crime, and a significant cost to the resources of the wider society. As a consequence, there are policy issues across the whole range of subjects that concern governments. These issues are particularly important in the area of crime, health, family, education and economic well-being.

Experience as a Writer

My experience as a writer as another individual in society and being student in school writing is a part of life. Living in another state and being so far away from family I write my love ones back home because a letter can mean more than a phone call sometimes. Going to school writing is everyday thing between assignments and taken notes every time you write your writing skills get better. Certain jobs require written answer on their application in order to get hired. I’m pretty sure in the career I’m choosing ill encounter question that require writhing answer. Writing to me is a valuable ability. It plays s a major role in communication. Under certain circumstance an individual may person could be in the military away to basic training or overseas and don’t have access to electrical devices. To be honest I really don’t like writing because I had bad experience about not staying on topic or not making complete sentence. I have a hard time by you use punctuation in the right way. I don’t know how to grab people attention when I’m writing. I have a hard time staying on one topic. I love to learn more about it and have better experiences as a writer. My 10th grade year in high school, my English teacher gave us an writing assignment which was an essay before Christmas break the last day of school and to start Christmas break my teacher gave us our grad and mines was below passing. Focuses an advancing my writing in skills in which I did passed my English class for the year. I realized that in order to do better you have to put forth the effort and determination once success is made it only make you want to keep succeeding in away is motivation.

German for Beginners Talking About Family and Relatives

In this lesson,​ we introduce vocabulary and grammar related to talking about your family and yourself. Youll learn words and phrases that will let you talk about your own family in German, as well as understand what someone else says about his or her family. You can also listen to the vocabulary! In addition to the members of a family (die Familie, dee fah-MILL-yah), youll learn how to ask someones name (and answer), talk about family relationships and give the ages of people. We will also discuss the difference between the formal and informal you in German - a vital cultural and language distinction that English-speakers need to understand! Cognates One of the first things youll notice is that many of the German words for the family are similar to the English terms. It is easy to see the close Germanic language family resemblance between  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹brother/Bruder,  father/Vater, or  daughter/Tochter. We call these similar words in two languages  cognates. There are a lot of English-German cognates for the family. Others are familiar because of common Latin or French origins:  family/Familie,  uncle/Onkel, etc. After you have studied this lesson, you will be able to read and understand a short paragraph in German about your or someone elses family. Youll even be able to draw your own family tree (Stammbaum) in German! AUDIO: Click on the German phrases linked below to hear them. Familienmitglieder - Family Members Notice in the phrases below that when you talk about a feminine (die) person (or thing), the possessive pronoun  mein  ends in  e. When talking about a masculine (der) person (or thing),​  mein  has no ending in the nominative (subject) case. Other possessive forms (sein, his;  dein, your, etc.) work the same way. The final  e  in German is always pronounced: (meine   MINE-ah) Deutsch English die Mutter - meine Mutter mother - my mother der Vater - mein Vater father - my father die Eltern - meine Eltern (pl.) parents - my parents der Sohn - sein Sohn son - his son die Tochter - seine Tochter daughter - his daughter der Bruder - ihr Bruder brother - her brother die Schwester - seine Schwester sister - his sister AUDIO  (mp3 or wav) for These Words    die Geschwister - meine Geschwister (pl.) siblings / brothers sisters - my brothers and sisters die Gromutter - meine Gromutter grandmother - my grandmother die Oma - meine Oma grandma/granny - my grandma der Grovater - dein Grovater grandfather - your grandfather der Opa - sein Opa grandpa/gramps - his grandpa der Enkelsohn - mein Enkelsohn grandson - my grandson die Enkelin - seine Enkelin granddaughter - his granddaughter More family words in the German  Family Glossary.

Implicit Personality Theory and Stereotypes - 1650 Words

According to Baron, Byrne Suls in their book Attitudes: Evaluating the social world. (1989) they defined the term Social Psychology as â€Å"the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior in social situations†. (p. 6). There are many concepts of social perception, two of these that will be looked at in this essay are Implicit Personality Theory and stereotypes. Implicit personality theory describes the beliefs, biases and assumptions, that an individual uses when he or she forms impressions on a stranger based on limited information. The way we form impressions and the different conclusions we make about other people based upon our individual impressions is also part of this theory. One of the first†¦show more content†¦Social identity theory was first proposed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in 1979, in the theory Tajfel and Turner proposed that the groups (family, social class, ethnicity etc) which people belonged was an important source of self esteem and pride. Groups give us a sense of social identity - a feeling of belonging to the social world. They believed that there were three separate mental processes involved when we evaluate other people (the â€Å"Us† and â€Å"Them† mentality). The first stage is categorization: We categorize objects and people in order to identify and understand the social environment. Social categories such as white, Black, English American rich and poor are used because they are useful to help identify a particular group. The second process is social identification, once we have identified and categorized ourselves into the group that we belong to, people tend to adopt the behaviour of that group, for example a student, teacher or businessman. The final stage is social comparison, once we are part of a group and identified with that group, people tend to compare their group to others, as this helps self-esteem to be maintained. Tajfel and his colleagues carried out one of the most renowned studies to support his theory called the minimal group paradigm. The aim of which was to determine if putting people into groups was enough to create in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination with the participants. Like all theories social identity theoryShow MoreRelatedAggressive Behavior Essay1189 Words   |  5 Pagesgenetically inheritable predisposition for psychopathy, possibly involving the autonomic nervous system, which is connected to emotion. This idea is based on studying psychopaths’ particular adeptness at ignoring stimuli. Research has also supported the theory that psychopaths fail to appreciate the emotional significance of an event or experience. This, along with unwillingness or inability to â€Å"process or use the deep semantic meanings of language,† may be causal in psychopaths’ apparently subtle formRead MoreEssay on Gender and Sexuality897 Words   |  4 Pagesgender, and a gender identity that are all aspects of our sexuality. These aspects describe who we are, in different personalities and attributes but related. Society’s categories for what is masculine and feminine may not capture how we truly feel, how we behave, or how we define ourselves. In today’s society, the imagery of men and women are portrayed in their different personalities. The ideal male is always characterized as being competent, stable, tough, poised, sturdy, skillful, and aggressiveRead MoreAn Investigation into the Effects of Race on the Perception of Guilt1478 Words   |  6 PagesThis illustrates that certain racial stereotypes still exist in society but perhaps on a subconscious level. Introduction ============ Theory In 1954 Bruner and Tagiuri theorised that our perceptions of others are not based on reality but on our general expectations. Everyone has ideas about which personality traits are consistent with other personality or physical traits. This theory is Implicit Personality Theory (IPT), this is an unconscious inferenceRead MoreRacism And The South And Police Brutality1378 Words   |  6 Pages(2017), proposed the following research questions: are there any differences in the effects on stereotype, social distance, and prejudice based on the demographic characteristics? Second, how are the influences on the stereotype, social distance, and prejudice on minorities based on the demographic characteristics (p. 14)? Choi et al findings These results support previous studies suggesting that stereotypes and prejudice do exist against minority groups. All three studies added to prior findings onRead MoreImmigration Is A Current And Contemporary Issue948 Words   |  4 Pagesshows that the failure to scientifically prove racist theories lead to psychologist beginning to see racism for what it really is – a phenomenon to be recognised as a problem within society. †¢ Devine (1989) – Stereotypes are learned early in life and are automatically activated, whereas prejudices are learned later in life, and can be either consistent, or inconsistent with these stereotypes. 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Society has constructed and reinforced concepts of the quintessential male and female and their respective roles in the community. The expectations for each sex may incidentally affect their performance and success, especially when tasks seem to deviate from stereotypical gender roles. This experiment explores the effect of these judgments in stereoty ped career settingsRead MoreStereotyping And Stereotypes1560 Words   |  7 Pagesfield, stereotypes are seen as negative overstatements about individuals and groups of people, which may be used to justify discrimination (Allport, 1954/1979). However, there are distinctions to be made between stereotypes and the act of stereotyping. Stereotyping is a natural process that can actually be beneficial. This process has been characterized by different cognitive processes, such as perception and memory, and social theories, like social cognitive theory and self-categorization theory. StereotypesRead More Discussing Impression Formation Essay examples1676 Words   |  7 PagesImpression formation and stereotypes First impressions are considered very important. It is very common to hear people talk about the importance of giving a good first impression because that very first moment in which people see or meet someone new, shows them the kind of person they are most likely to be. How is personality impressions formed? Do first impressions have a much greater impact on judgements than subsequent impressions? How first impressions are formed has been a subject ofRead MoreGeneral Conception Of Prejudice And Prejudice919 Words   |  4 PagesThe presence of stereotypes and prejudices existed from a long time ago along with the human history – partially often deeply integrated with religion or social status. In 21st century, people are facing with many different stereotypes and prejudices either directly or indirectly. 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Home Reader S Preference Of Tamil Periodicals A Study

HOME READER’S PREFERENCE IN TAMIL PERIODICALS : A STUDY INTRODUCTION: The mass media has great potentiality in influencing and moulding the opinions of the people in developing countries where the susceptibility of people is found to be great. The primary reason for susceptibility has been illiteracy or semi literacy perpetuated by under development. First, the illiterates and semi literates living in â€Å"quasi immersion in reality† have not been able to form firm opinions on many subjects, which have set the ground for the persuasive power of the mass media. Any mass media stimulates interaction in primary groups such as the family. Interaction has, therefore, been greater in Indian society which mostly comprises of peasant nuclear families and joint families. Thirdly, the mass media itself, especially the print media, becomes the â€Å"text book† for many neo-literates and semi literates. Finally, the mass media in developing countries provide the â€Å" symbolized models† which form the materials for â€Å"obser vational learning â€Å" promoting â€Å" imitation â€Å" and â€Å" identification†. John Culkin has rightly observed that â€Å"Each media has its own language, audience, methods of production, economics and distribution. Each must be judged within these limits†. The Tamil periodical has had a significant history spread over 164 years since the publication of a monthly, the Tamil Magazine, in 1831, though it suffered discontinuity for nearly fifty years during the formativeShow MoreRelatedConsumer Buying Behaviour of Magazines7993 Words   |  32 Pagessubsided, therefore impartial reporting is a major feature of the Indian Print Media. The news you get through these outlets cannot be any truer. The newspaper with the largest Circulation in India is Dainik Jagran, having near about Two million readers. Next comes Times of India, an English newspaper, followed by Dainik Bhaskar, another Hindi Newspaper. India has a lot of regional newspapers and magazines as well in a lot of languages. Therefore there is something out there for everyone to readRead MoreA Study On Responsiveness Of Customers Towards Print Media And Deliverable Satisfaction10259 Words   |  42 Pages CHAPTER – 1 INTRODUCTION â€Å"A Study on Responsiveness of Customers towards Print Media and Deliverable Satisfaction† INTRODUCTION If you don t read the newspaper, you are uninformed, you are unexciting ; if you read the newspaper, you are well-informed and you are conversant. Daniel J Boorstin Today Newspapers are considered to be the best source of news and information. In many respects it is also a medium of communication among the peoples across the worldRead MoreMarketing Management130471 Words   |  522 Pages Marketing management – an introduction Unit structure: 1. Introduction 2. Learning Objectives 3. Marketing Management 3.1. Evolution of marketing management 3.2. The Role of Marketing 3.3. Marketing concepts 3.4. The Marketing Mix (The 4 P s Of Marketing) 3.5. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Ethics in Marketing 4. Have you understood type questions 5. Summary 6. Exercises 7. References 1. INTRODUCTION: The apex body in United States of America for the Marketing functions, AmericanRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesinfluence of prominent urban planners and architects— including Le Corbusier and the Chicago School—urban preservation and the city as the locus of global cultural development, and the ways in which slums and shanty towns have morphed into long-term homes and viable communities for perhaps a majority of urban dwellers worldwide in the last half of the twentieth century. Broadly conceived and remarkably comprehensive, Bonnie Smith’s essay provides an overview of the gendering of political and social

Brain Imaging Free Essays

string(138) " creates highly detailed anatomical images using radiofrequency resonance signals elicited from the hydrogen atoms of tissue under study\." Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a condition characterized by recurrent intrusive, often repugnant, and always anxiety-ridden thoughts and images and by sets of ritualized behaviors performed compulsively by the sufferer in an attempt to allay the anxiety. The compulsive behaviors typically provide little relief, however, and the sufferer remains relegated to an anxious and painful daily experience. Thus, the patient who drives over the same speed bump each morning may find it impossible to relieve oneself of the concern that one may have, on a particular morning, driven over a pedestrian instead, and one is compelled to circle the block in a ritualized fashion searching for a crushed body in the street. We will write a custom essay sample on Brain Imaging or any similar topic only for you Order Now While the sufferer is able to acknowledge the perverse and senseless nature of the rituals, this insight alone fails to relieve the experience of helplessness (Pauls et al. , 1995). As has been true of most psychiatric disorders, traditional etiologic explanations have been based on psychoanalytic findings and constructs. Formulations of the illness based on cognitive processing models represent a more recent development. Still more recently, a significant reconceptualization of obsessive-compulsive symptomatology has followed the development of modern functional imaging technologies, and a biologically-oriented and brain-centered view of OCD has emerged in light of the substantial findings from the last decades. The most popular brain theory to date explains the pathogenesis of OCD as an imbalance in the action of a pair of interrelated neural circuits which, under normal circumstances, maintain one another in a state of functionally balanced tone. It may be parenthetically added that, to the extent these brain data are themselves understood, it has become possible to evaluate psychological theories of OCD in functional terms (Robinson et al. , 1991). The neurobiology of OCD has been a subject of research interest for several decades, with the disorder having become increasingly formulated as a neuropsychiatric illness. Modern neuropsychiatric hypotheses have been guided by data having its origins in data derived from the direct study of OCD patients using newly developed non-invasive brain imaging techniques. Significant findings from this area of inquiry are summarized in the following pages. Background to OCD OCD symptomatology has been reported among patients with closed head trauma to the basal gangliar structures and among those with basal ganglia lesions demonstrable subsequent to carbon monoxide poisoning and to wasp sting (McKeon, 1984). Symptoms have additionally presented as a clinical feature both of striatal necrosis and frontal lobe lesion (Siebyl et al, 1989). Thus, the initial background of data around OCD has implicated the basal gangliar structures, particularly the striatum, and, to a lesser extent, the frontal lobe. Imaging studies of the living brain are generally divisible into two distinct categories, those representing morphologic or structural abnormality, on the one hand, and those representing disturbance of function at the cellular or metabolic levels, possibly with only very small or wholly undetectable changes in morphology, on the other. The distinction is important: while investigation at the level of structure and morphology will reveal atrophic change or gross pathology (eg. , tumor, trauma, etc. ,) investigation at the metabolic level provides a window directly into what has been termed, in traditional discourse, â€Å"functional mental illness. † That is, structures which have retained their morphologic integrity may nonetheless be shown to be functioning in metabolically hyperactive or hypoactive state relative to normal. In the interest of maintaining this important distinction, studies deriving from the two imaging modality groups are reviewed here separately. Structural brain imaging studies Luxenberg, Swedo, Flament et al. (1989) used quantitative Computed Tomography (qCT) to analyze the morphologic volumes of various brain structures believed key in OCD. Clinical subjects with childhood-onset OCD were selected on the basis of active and unabated symptomatology of at least one year during their illness. While depressive symptomatology with onset after obsessional illness was not an exclusion criterion, none of the patients was depressed at the time of the qCT examination. The researchers found that mean caudate nucleus volume in the patients was significantly less than that of control subjects. No other significant brain abnormalities were found. Behar, Rapoport and Berg, et al (1984), report on the administration of CT scans and neuropsychological test measures to 16 adolescents with OCD and 16 matched controls. Patients were found to have significantly increased ventricular size (relative to whole-brain volume) and to show spatial-perceptual deficits on the Money Road Map Test of Directional Sense. The Money Map Test uses a simulated street map with a route indicated by a dotted line. The subject traverses the route and indicates a right or left turn at each choice point. Near the midpoint of the examination the subject is required to mentally rotate himself in order to reverse his own right-left reference. Patients with frontal lobe lesions have been reported to do poorly on this task. Subjects’ ventricular size and neuropsychological test findings were not significantly correlated, however, and the researchers suggest that significant co-morbidity within the patient sample led to unexpected results. In fact, the patient sample had been selected on the basis of its extraordinary psychiatric symptomatology: â€Å"It is possible that (the OCD subjects) are atypical in that adult patients commonly report being able to conceal their symptoms after clear onset in childhood† (Behar, Rapoport and Berg, et al. , 1984, p. 365). The results of the Behar study are also inconsistent with those of Insel and associates (1983), who report neither ventricular enlargement on CT brain imaging nor significant neuropsychological deficits on the Halstead-Reitan battery of neuropsychological tests in 18 adult OCD sufferers. Confirmation for ventricular enlargement is likewise not observed in the present majority of structural brain studies. Garber, Ananth, Chiu, and colleagues (1988) performed Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans on 32 patients meeting the DSM-III criteria for OCD in an investigation of the caudate and ventricular findings. Subjects were judged free of psychopathology other than OCD on the basis of psychiatric testing and evaluation, and severity of OCD symptoms was rated at the time of MRI by means of the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale. MRI creates highly detailed anatomical images using radiofrequency resonance signals elicited from the hydrogen atoms of tissue under study. You read "Brain Imaging" in category "Papers" The technique produces structural images which are in many respects (eg. , spatial resolution) quite superior to those provided by CT (Garber et al. , 1988). Further, a technical routine known as â€Å"spin-lattice relaxation time† (or Tl), in which a summary measurement of the time required for protons excited within host molecules to relax to baseline is taken as a direct measurement of the mobility of water protons in membranes and fluids. In the study with OCD patients, Behar and colleagues discovered significantly lengthier corrected Tl values for clinical subjects relative to controls in the lenticular nuclei and the right frontal lobes white matter. Because of the high degree of heterogeneity in both samples, subgroups within the clinical sample were developed on the basis of family history and medication status and analyzed against one another. No between group differences were noted based on medication status. Patients with family histories of OCD differed from those with no such histories in the anterior cingulum, showing significantly briefer Tl values. No gross structural differences were specific to the OCD group. Garber and colleagues (1988) ascribe the altered Tl include to subtle atrophy in the right frontal cortex or diminished blood flow to this region, corresponding to a decline in frontal cortical metabolism. Involvement is also suggested on the parts of the cingulate gyms and lenticular nuclei. These areas are components of frontal-limbic pathways that may mediate the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder; surgical alteration of the relationships among structures within these pathways have produced symptomatic improvements. Moreover, the authors propose that hereditary influences on the illness may be most directly expressed in the cingulate region. The implication of the frontal lobes and cingulate gyms in OCD suggests abnormalities in cortical-striatal-thalamic-cortical circuits. Robinson, Wu, and Munne et al. (1995) used MRI in a structural volumetric analysis of selected brain regions within or adjacent to these circuits in 26 patients with OCD (DSM-VI-R criteria). While subjects were screened for a number of exclusionary criteria, co-morbidity with depression was not among these. Twenty-six screened normal control subjects were matched to the OCD patients. In results which directly contradict those of Scarone, Colombo, and Ambruzzese, et al. (1992), in which right caudate nucleus size was found by MRI to be increased in patients with OCD, Robinson and colleagues report a significantly diminished morphometic volume for the caudate nuclei bilaterally. These findings are consistent with those of Luxenberg et al. (1988), described above, in which morphometric analysis by CT indicated significantly reduced caudate nucleus volume in patients with OCD. Study by Alyward, Schwartz, and Machlin et al. (1991) report no statistically significant differences between OCD and normal subjects on MRI studies of caudate volume. Their report demonstrates a direct correlation in patients with OCD between the putamen volume and the Global Severity of psychopathology score developed by the National Institute of Mental Health as well as between the caudate volume and the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale score, but found no correlations with the Y-BOCS total score or with the obsessions or compulsions subscore on this instrument. Curiously, however, division of the patients with OCD into subgroups based on a history of depression did not demonstrate a significant difference. Imaging measures were similar between subjects with and without medication histories. There was no evidence of ventricular enlargement in patients with OCD. As a group, studies of brain morphology and structure have returned substantially inconsistent findings in OCD; particularly differing are reports on the caudate nucleus and striatal region. Different study methods and small sample sizes may account partially for these discrepant findings and represent problems which must ultimately be overcome before a valid consensus can be reached. The significant prevalence of OCD symptomatology within neurologic populations and its high co-morbidity with depression contribute to the potential for heterogeneity in OCD samples (Pauls, 1995). The Alyward finding of increased caudate volume in OCD subjects with higher depression scale scores, but not among OCD subjects at large, not only reveals the heterogeneity of the disorder but illustrates the necessity of rigorously defining sample parameters before meaningful comparison and replication may be undertaken. Such rigor has not yet been sufficiently applied in structural imaging studies. Notwithstanding these issues, the question of a chronic degenerative process with resultant caudate diminution over time is suggested by certain of the data, in particular light of the fact that most of the OCD patients studied by the Robinson and Luxenberg groups were longtime sufferers. Longitudinal follow-up studies would be needed to determine whether caudate volume changes in OCD are progressive. Additionally, because structural brain imaging modalities are sensitive only to pathology which has resulted in physical change in tissue, they omit consideration of metabolic or functional change. The following section offers a discussion of imaging findings based on functional processes of the brain; modalities of this type substantially enlarge the data available from structural imaging alone. Functional brain imaging studies Functional brain imaging refers collectively to that set of techniques used to derive images reflecting biochemical, physiologic, or electrical properties of the central nervous system (Devous, 1995). The most developed of these techniques have in common the registration of such data in digitized maps which thus represent visually to the diagnostician or researcher the relative metabolic activations among brain structures of interest (provided that the dimensions of these lay within the spatial resolution capability of the particular technique). The maps can typically be rendered in any standard anatomical plane for the sake of further clarifying these metabolic relationships. Positron Emission Tomography (PET), so named for the species of radioactive decay on which it depends, and the more economical and widely available modality of Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) each registers in a digitized functional map relative regional metabolic activations for any given brain state (eg. , under challenge, during active symptomatology, at rest, and so forth). SPECT maps the distribution of a radioactively labeled pharmaceutical administered intravenously administered to a subject and typically designed to integrate itself into brain blood flow processes in a manner correspondent to the relative activations of the latter (Devous, 1995). The emission of gamma radiation from the agent after it has been allowed to incorporate itself into brain tissue enables the subsequent mapping of blood perfusion densities across cortical regions with the use of SPECT imaging hardware. Blood flow and metabolism are tightly coupled within the brain under most normal and pathologic circumstances, and therefore inferences about neurometabolism are accurately informed by measures of relative blood flow (Devous, 1995). One of the more popular radiopharmaceuticals for such blood flow mapping is referred to generically as â€Å"HMPAO,† an acronym for the chemical structure of the agent. Bound to this chemical structure is the radioactive element Technetium-99m, which is favored as an imaging isotope because of its half-life and energy characteristics (Devous, 1995). Two facts of brain function are pertinent to any review of imaging studies in this area. The first of these requires the reader to keep in mind that an activated cortical region may be inhibitory or excitatory. In the basal ganglia system, for example, excitatory and inhibitory input sf contribute mutually to a functionally balanced neural tone. The second fact is closely related: A system which lies efferent to the hypermetabolic one will correspond to the nature of this input: Inhibitory or excitatory. Notwithstanding the complexities connected to image interpretation, the functional modalities have permitted the development of a more conclusive body of evidence regarding brain function in OCD than has been the case with structural imaging modalities. A consensus has emerged around increased activity in the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). Less agreement exists with respect to the role of the striatum and associated basal gangliar structures. Rubin, Villanueva-Meyer, and Ananth et al. (1995) studied ten adult male patients with OCD and ten age-matched adult male normal controls using SPECT Patients with OCD had significantly increased uptake of the metabolic tracer radionuclide in the high dorsal parietal cortex bilaterally, in the left posterofrontal cortex, and in the orbital frontal cortex bilaterally The patients also had significantly reduced tracer uptake in the head of the caudate nucleus bilaterally, but not in the putamen or thalamus, consistent with the hypothesized reduction of caudate nucleus activity in OCD. Baxter, Schwartz, Maziotta et al. (1992) reports findings which conflict with those of Rubin and co-workers on the activation of the caudate nuclei. In the Baxter study, ten non-depressed OCD patients were compared with ten age- and gender-matched normals using PET scans. Subjects were screened for current co-morbidity with major depression, bipolar disorder, cyclothymic disorder and dysthymia. All but two subjects had suffered from depressive disorders in the past. Comparison of the scans indicated that patients with OCD had significantly higher overall glucose metabolic rate values than normal controls. Orbital gyri were significantly higher in metabolic activation bilaterally, as were the bilateral heads of the caudate nuclei. As described, Rubin et al. (1995) report diminished metabolic activity in the head of the caudate nuclei bilaterally. Machlin, Harris, and Pearlson, el al. (1991) found elevated blood flow in the prefrontal cortex and cingulate (termed the medial-frontal region) in ten OCD patients studied with SPECT relative to a matched sample of eight normals. Several other well-conceived functional imaging studies implicate the structures of both the Papez circuit and Modell’s hypothesized fronto-striatal-pallido-thalamic-frontal loop. Swedo et al. (1989) compared 18 OCD patients and 18 normals using PET, and while no whole-brain glucose metabolic differences were found between groups, the left orbitofrontal, right sensorimotor, and bilateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate regions were notably higher in adults with childhood-onset OCD. Within this group, a positive correlation emerged between glucose uptake in the prefrontal and orbitofrontal regions and state measures of anxiety. In addition, responders to treatment with clomipramine were distinguishable from non-responders on the basis of regional changes in the right cingulate and right orbitofrontal regions, with response failures evincing significantly higher pre-therapy activations. Baxter et al. (1992), in a series of studies with a total of 24 adult patients with OCD, found increased FDG uptake in the cerebral hemispheres overall, and in the orbital gyri and caudate nuclei in the OCD group as compared to normal controls. Rubin, et al (1995) used SPECT imaging and found elevated uptake in the dorsal parietal cortex bilaterally, the left posterofrontal cortex and the OFC bilaterally. The group also found decreased uptake in the heads of the caudate nuclei bilaterally. Two paired comparisons have been made of OCD subjects before and after symptom aggravation. Rauch et al. (1994) used oxygen-15 labeled carbon dioxide PET to study individually tailored provocative stimuli in order to provoke symptoms in eight patients with OCD. Paired comparisons pre- and post-challenge yielded an increase in regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF) in the right caudate nucleus, left anterior cingulate cortex, and also bilaterally in the OFC subsequent to challenge. McGuire et al. (1992) studied four OCD patients during actual exposure to contaminants in a pattern tailored individually to produce successively greater degrees of anxiety. rCBF was found to increase in the OFC, neostriatum. globus pallidus, and thalamus in relation to the urge to perform compulsive movements. These two paired comparisons of patients pre- and post-challenge provide a unique opportunity to examine differences between a resting and an obsessional state in the same patient during a brief period. Further, such an examination sheds light on the manner in which inconsistencies among functional imaging studies may be due to variations in the mental state of obsessional patients at the time of the imaging studies. While the architecture of the anxiety challenge varies considerably between the Rauch and McGuire protocols, it remains nonetheless somewhat disappointing that more consistent findings are not elicited in the paired comparisons. In these studies, as in the literature more generally, substantial disagreement exists on the response of the cingulate cortex and caudate nuclei. It is noteworthy, however, that the two paired challenge studies concur with respect to the hyperactivated state of the OFC. It is on the issue of striatal, specifically caudate, activation and morphology that most disagreement exists across both the structural and functional brain imaging studies. It is possible to speculate on the cause of this inconsistency: Caudate metabolism may be a state, rather than a trait, marker in OCD. It may also be that pathology in this region is progressive: Subjects with damaged striatal mechanisms may, for instance, manifest a hypermetabolic condition in the region for some lengthy period before an atrophic process ultimately begins and results in the opposite finding, hypometabolism and volumetric diminution over a period of time. Uniformity across subject samples in terms both of length and history of illness and co-morbidity with other pathology is therefore essential to further investigation of this region in OCD. Conclusion The two categories of imaging study at times assume roles along a continuum of pathological severity or etiology. For example, a degenerative change in tissue density or overall size and shape may have developed only after a lengthy period of metabolic dysregulation. An imaging technique sensitive only to morphology would pick up such pathology only at a relatively late stage in its development. Early changes, those occurring at the metabolic level, would be visualized only by means of a functional imaging technique. On the issue of orbital and frontal activation there exists substantial agreement. Although a great deal of data implicates these structures, it is not yet possible to demonstrate which specific obsessive-compulsive symptoms are related to the observed abnormalities in these neuroanatomic regions or what specific role the region plays in the neuropsychology of the illness. References Alyward E. H, Schwartz J, Machlin S, Pearison G. D. (1991). Bicaudate ratio as a measure of caudate volume on MR images. American Journal ofNeuroradiology, 12, 1217-1222. Baxter L. R. , Schwartz J. M. , Bergman K. S. , Szuba M. P. , Guze B. H. , Mazziotta J C , Alazraki A, Selin C. E. , Phelps ME (1992). Caudate glucose metabolic rate changes with both drug and behavior therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 681-689. Behar D, Rapoport J. L. , Berg C. J. , Denckla MB, Mann L, Cox C , Fedio P. , Zahn T, Wolfman M. G (1984). Computerized tomography and neuropsychological test measures in adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 363-368. Devous M. D. , (1995). Instrumentation, radiopharmaceuticals, and technical factors. In: Van Heertum R. L. , Tikoftky R. S. (eds. ) Cerebral SPECTImaging. New York, NY: Raven Press, Ltd. 1995. Garber H. J. , Weilburg J. B. , Buonanno F. S. (1988). Use of magnetic resonance imaging in psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 164-171. Insel T. R. , Donnelly E. F. , Lalakea ML, Alterman IS, Murphy D. L (1983). Neuropsychological studies of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 18, 741-751. Luxenberg J. S. , Swedo S. E. , Flament M. F. , Friedland R. P. , Rapoport JR. , Rapoport S. I. (1988). Neuroanatomical abnormalities in obsessive-compulsive disorder detected with quantitative X-ray computed tomography. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1089-1093. Machlin S. R. , Harris G. J. , Pearlson CD. , Hoehn-Sanc R, Jeffery P. , Camargo E. E. (1991). Elevated medial-frontal cerebral blood flow in obsessive-compulsive patients: ASPECT study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1240-1242. McGuire P. K. , Bench C. J. , Frith CD, Marks I. M. , Frackowiak R. S. J. , Dolan R. J. (1994). Functional anatomy of obsessive compulsive phenomena. British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 459-468. McKeon J. , McGuffin P. , Robinson P. (1984). Obsessive-compulsive neurosis following head injury: A Report of four cases. British Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 190-192. Pauls D. L. , Alsobrook J. P. , Goodman W, Rasmussen S. , Leckman J. F. (1995). A family study of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 76-84. Rauch S. L. , Jenicke MA, Alpert N. M. , Baer L, Breiter H. C. , Savage C. R. , Fischman A. J. (1994). Regional cerebral blood flow measured during symptom provocation in obsessive compulsive disorder using oxygen-15-labeled carbon dioxide and positron emission tomography. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 62-70. Robinson D. , Wu H. , Munne R. A. , Ashtari M. , Alvir J. M. J. , Lemer G. , Koreen A. , Cole K, Bogerts B. (1995). Reduced caudate nucleus volume in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 393-398. Rubin R. T. , Ananth J, Vilianueva-Meyer J. , Trajmar PC, Mena I. (1995). Regional Xenon-133 cerebral blood flow and cerebral Tc-99m-HMPAO uptake in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder before and during treatment. Biological Psychiatry, 38, 429-437. Scarone S. , Colombo C, Ambruzzese L. S. , Ronchi P. , Locatelli M , Smeraldi S. G. , ScottiG. (1992). Increased right caudate nucleus size in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Detection with magnetic resonance imaging. Psychiatry and Research Neuroimaging, 45, 115-121. Seibyl, J. P. , Krystal J. H. , Goodman W. K. (1989). Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in a patient with a right frontal lobe lesion: Response to lithium augmentation of trancypromine. Neuropsychiatry. 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The Loss of Humanity in MacBeth Essay Example For Students

The Loss of Humanity in MacBeth Essay In Shakespeares play Macbeth the character Macbeth proves to be somewhat dynamic in his human representation. He starts off as being very human; he is actually a war-hero. However the seed of change is planted right away when he meets the witches and they tell him their prophecy of him becoming king. This makes Macbeth ambitious, and it leads to his demise. Once he kills Duncan the change rapidly begins to accelerate. By the end of the play, and Macbeths killing spree, his transformation is complete and all of his human thoughts and feelings are gone. Macbeth changes from being a great individual to the focus of everyones fear and anger, because he loses his human characteristics of conscience and remorse. As the play starts Macbeth is very human; he has feelings and friends and he is a war- hero. As time elapses, he begins to change into a ruthless killer, a tyrant. Once he meets the witches and learns he will become king he begins to plot and think murderously. When he arrived at a plot to kill Duncan, and told Lady Macbeth, he realized it was the only way. However, in doing this he made a lot of people suspicious. This meant that more people would have to be killed, and this included the kings son who was next in line for the throne. At this point Macbeth experiences the first of a number of breakdowns, and he begins to lose his human characteristics. Macbeth begins to fall into a murderous rage after killing Duncan. He thought this would clear his name, but it only made things worse. Each person he has killed results in another that needs to be killed. With each kill Macbeth makes he loses feelings. Macbeths conscience is soon deteriorated to nothing, and his killings are numerous. After killing Banquo and confronting his ghost Macbeth breaks down for the last time. At this point Macbeths last shred of remorse are nearly gone. His wife dies and he barely cares, and then he orders Macduffs family to be killed. Macbeth is completely crazy at this point, and he begins to believe solely in the witches prophecy that he cannot be killed by a man of woman born. This belief ultimately results in his demise. Macbeth kills a young soldier on his way to confront Macduff, and he does not care one bit. Here he has become nothing but a cold-blooded killer, not the least bit human. Macbeths change from human to killer is his own doing. He allowed the evil that is within everyone to overwhelm him. His ambition and need for power put him through a transformation from hero to killer. Macbeths conscience and feelings seemed to leave him. At first he needed Lady Macbeth to coax him into killing, and at the end he kills on impulse. After a number of mental breakdowns, Macbeth just loses it. At this point he stops representing anything human, and displays no human characteristics. Category: Shakespeare .